Даму психологиясы

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- Preface
- Theoretical problems of development psychology
  - 1.1 The subject, objectives and methods of psychology
  - 1.2 Conception of age and psychological development stages
- The problem of the periodization of mental development in developmental psychology
  - 2 The problem of the periodization of mental development in developmental psychology
  - 2.1 Biogenetic concepts in foreign developmental psychology
  - 2.2 The theory of Jean Piaget’s mental development
  - 2.3.Epigenetic principle of development by E.Erikson
  - 2.4 Cultural-historical concept of mental development by Vygotsky
- Psychological aspects of ontogenetic development period
  - 3.1.Newborn crisis
  - 3.2 Infancy (2-12 months)
  - 3.3 Toddlerhood (1-3 year)
  - 3.4 Preschool age (3- 6-7 year)
  - 3.5 Early school age (7—10,11 years)
  - 3.6 Adolescence (10-11 — 15-16 years)
  - 3.7 Youth (17-18 – 26 years)
  - 3.8 Aduldhood
  - 3.9 Late aduldhood
- Practice
  - 1.1 The subject, objectives and methods of psychology
  - 2 The problem of the periodization of mental development in developmental psychology
  - 2.4 Cultural-historical concept of mental development by Vygotsky
  - 3.4 Preschool age (3- 6-7 year)
  - 3.6 Adolescence (10-11 — 15-16 years)

- Алғы сөз
- Даму психологиясының теориялық мәселелері
  - 1.1 Психологияның пәні, міндеттері мен әдістері
  - 1.2 Жастың психологиялық тұжырымдамасы және психикалық дамудың кезеңділігі туралы мәселе
- Даму психологиядағы психикалық дамудың кезеңділігі туралы мәселе
  - 2 Даму психологиядағы психикалық дамудың кезеңділігі туралы мәселе
  - 2.1 Шетелдік және отандық психологиядағы қозғаушы күштердің, ақыл-ой дамуының көздері мен жағдайлары туралы пікірлер
  - 2.2 Ж.Пиаженің психикалық даму теориясы
  - 2.3.3Э. Эриксонның жеке тұлғаны дамытудың эпигенетикалық теориясы
  - 2.4 Л.С. Выготскийдің психикалық дамуының мәдени-тарихи тұжырымдамасы
- Онтогенетикалық даму кезеңдерінің психологиялық сипаттамалары
  - 3.1.Сәби дағдарысы
  - 3.2 Нәресте (2-12 ай)
  - 3.3 Ерте жастағы (1-3 жас)
  - 3.4 Мектепке дейінгі жас (3- 6-7 жас)
  - 3.5 Кіші мектептік жас (7-10,11 жас)
  - 3.6 Жасөспірім жас (10,11-15,16 жас)
  - 3.7 Жастық жас (17,18 – 26 жас)
  - 3.8 Кемел жас
  - 3.9 Кәрілік
- Практика
  - 1.1 Психологияның пәні, міндеттері мен әдістері
  - 2 Даму психологиядағы психикалық дамудың кезеңділігі туралы мәселе
  - 2.4 Л.С. Выготскийдің психикалық дамуының мәдени-тарихи тұжырымдамасы
  - 3.4 Мектепке дейінгі жас (3- 6-7 жас)
  - 3.6 Жасөспірім жас (10,11-15,16 жас)

2.1 Biogenetic concepts in foreign developmental psychology

As part of this approach, developmental psychology initially accumulated facts and their systematization, superimposed on the temporary developmental framework of the child. Fixed the emergence of new processes and fractures in the development of children. The theory of Charles Darwin, who first formulated the idea that development, genesis, is subject to a certain law, had a great influence on the emergence of the first concepts of child development. In the future, any major psychological concept has always been associated with the search for laws of child development.
Among the early psychological theories is the concept of recapitulation. Hall’s “theory of recapitulation explained that each person goes through changes in both the psychic and somatic senses which follows the evolution scale of the mind and body” (Grezlik 1999). Hall proclaimed that the discovery of the natural development of the child was only the first step towards educational prescription and that beyond nature, educators had to decide what the child’s path of learning should be (Hall 1904). He understood that nature endowed children with differing capacities, which required different levels of education. Children, he said, had the right to be educated to their capacities but not beyond. In discussing the concept of “individualization,” Hall spoke of the idea of new education as being the adjustment of methods to reflect individuals’ variations of age, sex, ability, and vocational expectation (Ross 1972). Through presenting the progression of a child’s development coupled with the contents, skills and values that should be taught, Hall tried to outline what he thought to be the “ideal school.”

The biogenetic law is a theory of development and evolution proposed by Ernst Haeckel in Germany in the 1860s. It is one of several recapitulation theories, which posit that the stages of development for an animal embryo are the same as other animals' adult stages or forms. Commonly stated as ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny, the biogenetic law theorizes that the stages an animal embryo undergoes during development are a chronological replay of that species' past evolutionary forms. The biogenetic law states that each embryo's developmental stage represents an adult form of an evolutionary ancestor. According to the law, by studying the stages of embryological development, one is, in effect, studying the history and diversification of life on Earth. The biogenetic law implied that researchers could study evolutionary relationships between taxa by comparing the developmental stages of embryos for organisms from those taxa. Furthermore, the evidence from embryology supported the theory that all of species on Earth share a common ancestor.

Ernst Haeckel studied animals and evolution in Germany from 1834 to 1919. He proposed the biogenetic law while working at the University of Jena in Jena, Germany, in his 1866 book Generelle Morphologie der Organismen [General Morphology of the Organisms]. The publication unifies theories Haeckel proposed during his work throughout the 1850s and 1860s. Haeckel cited Johann Wolfgang von Goethe from Germany, Jean Baptiste Lamarck from France, and Charles Darwin from England as his main influences for creating the biogenetic law.

Haeckel proposed the biogenetic law after reading Charles Darwin's theories in The Origin of Species. Haeckel championed Darwin's theory of evolution in Germany and praised him for using information from embryology to help form his theory of evolution. Darwin argued that one could explain facts about embryology, such as the early similarity between embryos of different species, by looking at them in terms of evolution by natural selection. The fact that the more general characters of a taxonomic group tend to be present earlier in the embryo, while specialized and variable characters tend to manifest later in the embryo, indicated that these specialized features are the most recent changes to the ancestral form. Darwin proposed that the embryos of currently living species would look similar to the embryos of their ancestors and that embryos of different taxonomic groups look similar to each other because they share a common ancestor. Haeckel interpreted the data differently than Darwin, and he purported instead that the embryonic stages of extant species represent adult forms of their previous ancestors.

Although Haeckel cited Darwin as he proposed the biogenetic law, the two disagreed about embryology and evolution. First, Haeckel interpreted the process of evolution as progressive, following a specified path from lower to higher animals. Darwin, however, argued that evolution wasn't progressive. He also argued that embryos diverged more from one another as development progressed, rather than passing through linear stages of evolutionary ancestry. Because Haeckel argued that evolution was progressive, he also endorsed Jean Baptiste Lamarck's theory of acquired characters. Lamarck theorized that organisms could acquire or alter their characters by use and disuse of their anatomical parts, and that parents could pass on these acquired or altered characters to their offspring. Lamarck's theory competed with Darwin's of natural selection as the mechanism for evolution, but Haeckel incorporated both theories into the biogenetic law.

Haeckel proposed the biogenetic law so that researchers could use the stages of embryological development to help construct evolutionary (phylogenetic) trees. Haeckel claimed that phylogenesis, or the process by which groups of organisms diversify from one another, influenced the development ( ontogeny) of embryos. He theorized that the stages in an organism's ontogeny reflected the successive changes in form, from generation to generation, of that organism's evolutionary ancestors. Many scientists saw Haeckel's work as a breakthrough in recapitulation theory because he offered a physical mechanism of development that other biologists had not proposed.

According to Haeckel, the biogenetic law depends on three assumptions. He called the first assumption the law of correspondence, which states that each stage of development in higher animals, such as humans, corresponds to adult stages of lower animals, such as fish. For instance, gill slits in early human embryos correspond to the gill slits in adult fish. The second assumption of the biogenetic law was that phylogenesis must occur by the addition of new characters to the end of the normal developmental process. Haeckel said that the early stages of different species' embryos look similar to each other because of developmental constraints present early in development. These constraints disappear towards the end of development, which allow for the addition of new characters and for subsequent evolution. The third assumption was the principle of truncation. Haeckel argued that if new characters were continuously added to the end of normal ontogeny, the length of embryonic development would eventually become longer than gestation periods of organisms in extant species. As a result, he theorized that early stages of development must be faster in higher organisms than in lower ones.

Haeckel also used the concept of truncation to explain inconsistencies between the stages of animals from different taxa. For instance, pigs and humans may look similar to each other as early embryos, but as ontogeny progresses, the embryos start to look different from one another. If embryos pass through the linear stages of their evolutionary ancestors, as Haeckel claimed, then the two embryos should go through the same stages until the pig reaches full development and the human continues through the subsequent stages of its evolutionary ancestry. However, in many cases, scientists found no such progressions. Haeckel hypothesized that truncation of ontogeny caused these inconsistencies. This principle of truncation influenced scientists in the US such as Alpheus Hyatt, Alpheus Packard, and Edward Drinker Cope.

Haeckel supported his biogenetic law with his drawings of embryos during different stages of development. In 1874, his work Anthropogenieincluded drawings of embryonic fish, salamanders, tortoises, chicks, pigs, cows, rabbits, and humans at different stages of development placed next to one another for comparison. Haeckel's drawings made the embryos of the different groups look almost identical in their earliest stages of development. He argued that they only become recognizable as species later in their respective developments. These similarities, according to Haeckel, demonstrated the linear progression from what he called lower forms to higher forms of animals, and he concluded that the stages recapitulated the evolutionary history of the organisms' ancestors.

Wilhelm his professor of anatomy at the University of Basel in Basel, Switzerland, and at the University of Leipzig in Leipzig, Germany, opposed Haeckel's biogenetic law. He argued that embryologists shouldn't aim to construct phylogenetic trees and argued that embryologists should instead aim to explain development. He agreed with Haeckel that one should use causal theories to explain development, but he argued that Haeckel's theory was flawed in positing the stages of development as representations of adult ancestors. He argued the Haeckel's biogenetic law overemphasized evolution as the cause of development and exaggerated the similarities between embryos of different species. He said that there were obvious differences between the early stages of embryos of different species, and that those differences, not the similarities, were important to explain development.

In the decades after Haeckel's publication of the biogenetic law, other biologists struggled to recreate Haeckel's results. Franz Keibel, a student of Wihelm His and a professor of anatomy at the University of Strasbourg in Alsace, France, tried to recreate Haeckel's drawings from his own specimens and concluded that Haeckel had exaggerated the similarity between embryos in his drawings. Keibel therefore rejected the biogenetic law and labeled it an exaggeration of the truth. In 1897, Keibel published this conclusion in the first volume of Normentafeln zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Wirbelthiere (Standard Panels to the Developmental History of the Verterbra).

Furthermore, many scientists adopted a competing theory in the beginning of the twentieth century. In 1828, Karl Ernst von Baer at University of Königsberg in Königsberg, Prussia, had proposed what researchers later called von Baer's laws of embryology. Von Baer formulated these laws to discredit conception of recapitulation theory published in 1811 by Johann Friedrich Meckel. In his laws, von Baer stated that the more general characters of a taxonomic group appear earlier in an animal embryo than the specialized characters do. He argued that rather than animals passing through successive stages of other adult animals, they diverge from one another as development progresses. Therefore, he concluded, the stages embryos pass through during ontogeny never represent adult forms of other animals; they only represent embryonic stages of other animals. This conception was part of Darwin's 1859 account of ontogeny in The Origin of Species. Although von Baer's theory was overshadowed by recapitulation theory for most of the nineteenth century, scientists in the twentieth century began to adopt von Baer's view as the more accurate representation of development.

Haeckel's biogenetic law was further discredited by the results of experimental embryologists in the early twentieth century. Researchers abandoned Haeckel's theory when they couldn't confirm his observations. Embryologists showed that cases of recapitulation were less prevalent than were the inconsistencies between the developmental stages of normal organisms from different species.

Another important reason for criticizing the theory of recapitulation was its recognition of the predetermined course of mental development, ignoring the specific historical character of this process, its dependence on the forms and methods of the child's relationship with the surrounding world. These theoretical positions influenced all foreign concepts of development, united in the framework of the biogenetic approach. As D.B. El'konin wrote, the theory of the child's mental development, one way or another related to the idea of ​​recurrence in this development of the history of mankind, is usually called recapitulation theories, which, in his opinion, are based on the concept of preformism.

The idea of ​​"preformism in development", "preformed and unreformed development" was repeatedly discussed by the classics of Russian psychology. As Vygotsky has shown, there are many different types of development. Therefore, it is important to correctly find the place that the mental development of the child occupies among them, that is, to determine the specificity of mental development among other developmental processes. L.S. Vygotsky distinguished preformed and unformed types of development. The preformed type is a type when, at the very beginning, the stages that the phenomenon (the organism) passes, and the final result that the phenomenon reaches, are fixed, fixed, fixed. Here everything is given from the very beginning. An example is embryonic development. Like him, mental development was considered by St. Hall as a brief repetition of the stages of mental development of animals and ancestors of modern man .

An unformed type of development is most common on our planet. The development of the Galaxy, the development of the Earth, the process of biological evolution, the development of society also belong to it. The process of mental development of the child also refers to this type of process. An undeveloped path of development is not predetermined in advance. Children of different epochs develop in different ways and reach different levels of development. From the very beginning, from the moment of the birth of the child, neither the stages through which he must pass nor the result that he must achieve is given. Child development is an unformed type of development, but this is a very special process - a process that is determined not from below but from above by the form of practical and theoretical activity that exists at a given level of society development.

In the framework of the conceptual scheme of the biogenetic approach (with his recognition of the leading role of heredity in child development, the preformed character of this process), the theory of the three stages of child development of K. Buhler was created. This theory is interesting by an attempt to qualitatively analyze the features of the development process (the identification of stages or stages of development of behavior). K. Buhler singled out three stages of development - instinct, training, intellect - and linked the transition from one stage to another not only with the maturation of the brain and the complication of relations with the environment, but also with the development of affective processes, with the development of the experience of pleasure associated with action. During the evolution of behavior there is a transition of pleasure "from the end to the beginning" of the action (in the first stage, pleasure arises as a result of satisfying the need: at the skill level, functional pleasure arises as the action proceeds, and at the stage of intellectual problem solving there is an anticipatory pleasure). Thus, the transition of pleasure "from the end to the beginning", according to K. Buhler, is the main driving force for the development of behavior. As D.B. Elkonin pointed out, K. Buhler, under the influence of Freud, put forward the principle of pleasure as the basic principle of the development of all living things. In different forms of behavior, the place of pleasure changes, this movement is at the basis of the primary stages of development of behavior. El'konin wrote that this theory already belongs to history and it is interesting only in that it raises the problem of the history of childhood .

Bühler's views are a deepening of the concept of recapitulation, since the child's developmental stages are identified with the stages of animal development. As Vygotsky emphasized, K. Buhler tried to bring to one denominator the facts of biological and socio-cultural development and ignored the fundamental uniqueness of child development. K. Buhler shared with one of the most contemporary child psychology a one-sided and erroneous view of mental development as a single and, moreover, biological in nature process.

During the development of the idea of ​​the source and causes of the development of the psyche in ontogeny, the question of how the acquired forms of behavior arise (the question was first raised by E. Thorndike) became topical. It turned out that they do not arise directly under the influence of heredity, but under the influence of the environment. But how is the environment and heredity related? When trying to answer this question, a theory of convergence arose, or the theory of two factors developed by V. Stern. V. Stern was a specialist in the field of differential psychology, in which the problem of the relationship between the biological and social is most acute. At the same time, in psychology, there were two theoretical concepts, equally eligible for existence, -empirism and nativism. If from two opposite points of view each can rely on serious grounds, then the truth must be in their combination, so V. Stern believed. From his point of view, mental development is the result of the convergence of internal data with external conditions. An example of this is the game: the surrounding reality delivers the material for the game, but how and when the child will play depends on the innate components of the game's instinct. In this convergence, the leading value remains for the innate components. So there was a problem of "weighing" the relative role of the two factors mentioned .

A little further than V. Stern went A. Gesell. According to his theory, development is not a simple function, determined by the x-elements of heredity and the y-elements of the environment. This is a self-conditioning process, because development is the adaptation of the child to the surrounding social environment, i.e., adaptation. To solve the problem of the relationship between the biological and social in the development process, an adequate method was needed. And one of such methods was found in comparative studies of twins (twin method). Twins are monozygotic (MZ - identical heredity) and dizygotic (DZ - they have different hereditary bases). There is a prospect of research of the relative influence of heredity and environment on the mental development of children, on their behavior.

Comparing the coefficients of differences in this development, one can judge the relationship between the biological and the social. These studies were carried out by A. Gesell . A. Gesell's contribution to psychic psychology first of all consists in the fact that he initiated the development of child psychology as a normative discipline that describes the child's achievements in the process of growth and development and builds on them a variety of psychological scales. He introduced longitudinal longitudinal research into psychology, developed a practical system for diagnosing a child's mental development from birth to adolescence, and conducted systematic comparative studies of the norm and various forms of pathology.

Noting the important results of these studies, it must be emphasized that the main emphasis was on the role of a hereditary factor for explaining age changes. In his studies, A. Gesell confined himself to a purely quantitative study of comparative sections of child development, reducing development to a simple increase, the "increase in behavior", without analyzing qualitative transformations from one stage of development to another, emphasized the dependence of development only on the maturation of the organism. Trying to formulate a general law of child development, A. Gesell drew attention to the decline in the rate of development with age: the younger the child, the faster the changes in his behavior. But what is behind the change in the pace of development? In the works of A. Gesell it is difficult to find an answer to this question. This is understandable, because the consequence of the cut (transverse and longitudinal) methods of investigation used by him was the identification of development and growth .

The works of A. Gesell were critically analyzed by L.S.Vygotsky who called A.Gesell's concept "the theory of empirical evolutionism", which reveals the child's social development as a simple kind of biological, as a child's adaptation to his environment. However, A. Gesell's appeal to the need to monitor the normal course of the child's mental development and the phenomenology of development (growth) he created from birth to 16 years have not lost their significance so far.

Further development of the developmental psychology within the framework of the biogenetic approach went along the path of analysis of the internal causes of the child's mental development. Unlike American psychology, which, in essence, remains the psychology of learning, European psychologists (Z3 By 3E ILIK YEL THE BASIS OF DEVELOPMENT RUKHANI ZHANGYRU PROGRAMME gogy . Freud, J. Piaget, K. Levin, A. Wallon, H. Werner) developed, on the basis of their original research methods, new approaches to understanding mental development as a qualitative process that obeys the internal laws of self-movement .

The concept of Freud in its theoretical foundations was the concept of the interaction of two factors (heredity and environment) in the course of the child's mental development. The method of psychoanalysis developed by him led him to understand the significance of the unconscious experiences of childhood in the life of an adult personality and allowed the author to create a structural theory of personality based on the conflict between the instinctive sphere of a person's psychic life and the requirements of society. In the understanding of the relationship "child - adult", "child - society" Z. Freud outlined the main landmarks. By Z. Freud, society - the source of all kinds of injuries (birth, weaning, etc.). On this basis, the theory of development as a theory of childhood traumas emerged. By Z. Freud, the relationship "child - adult", "child - society" from the outset antagonistic. Hence the problem arises of the inclusion of a child in society - the problem of the socialization of the individual - in the system of ontogenetic relations between the child and society.

The most fruitful European direction of studying the internal causes and patterns of the child's mental development was created by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget and was named the Geneva School of Genetic Psychology. Representatives of this school study the origin and development of intelligence in the child. It is important for them to understand the mechanisms of the cognitive activity of the child, which are hidden behind the external picture of his behavior. For this purpose, Piaget's famous method is used as the main method, which is not focused on fixing the external features of the child's behavior and the superficial content of his utterances, but on those hidden mental processes that lead to the emergence of externally observed phenomena. The works of J. Piaget and his pupils showed that the development of the child's intelligence consists in the transition from egocentrism (centering) through decentralization to the objective position of the child in relation to the external world and himself.

The psychology of the child's psychology is associated with the psychology of the Geneva school with those structures of intelligence that are formed during life thanks to the action of the child with objects. The external material actions of a child (up to two years) are initially performed in an expanded and consistent manner. Thanks to the repetition in different situations, the actions are schematized and with the help of symbolic means (imitation, play, speech, etc.) already in the preschool age are transferred to the internal plan. In the younger school age, the systems of interrelated actions turn into mental operations. The order of the formation of the fundamental structures of thinking is constant, but the timing of their achievement can vary depending on external and internal factors, and first of all on the social and cultural environment in which the child lives. According to J. Piaget, the laws of cognitive development are universal, they act both in the development of the child's thinking, and in the course of scientific cognition .

Prominent representative of the French school of experimental psychology A. Wallon, investigating the internal causes of the development of the psyche, focused on the connection of the socium and the psyche of the child. A. Wallon stressed that the society is absolutely necessary for a small child, unable to do anything on his own. The reactions of the child must be constantly supplemented, understood, interpreted by an adult. Therefore, A. Wallon believes, a human child is a social being genetically, biologically. The social nature of man is not imposed by external influences, the social is already included in biology as an absolute necessity. According to A. Wallon, the child does not passively adapt to the world around objects and phenomena created by previous generations of people, but actively takes possession of their achievements in the process of multifaceted activity, always mediated by the relationship of the child and the adult. Development begins with a situation that A. Wallon described as a symbiotic situation for a child and an adult (LS Vygotsky called "prama"), where the adult appears in the social position of the bearer of human culture and the ways of its development, stimulating the formation of social activity of a growing person. It is this activity that is the defining characteristic of the developing personality, allowing it to go beyond the accumulated experience, the formed qualities .

In the development of the child A. Wallon noted two cardinal moments: the transition from the organic to the psychic (here a special place belongs to the emotions that unite him with the social world, the symbiosis of the organic and mental takes place) and the transition from action to thought (it is possible due to imitation ). The source, which, according to A. Wallon, forms a plan of subjectivity, a plan of consciousness, lies in interaction with surrounding people.

The concept of A. Wallon outlines the stages of personality development. At the same time, the author's merit is recognition of the role of society in the development of the child, as well as the idea that the dynamics of the stages of development is based on the change in activity: "The transition from one stage of development of the child to another is the result of the fact that the activity prevailing in the first stage, becomes secondary and, perhaps, even disappears completely at the next. Thus, aiming at revealing the internal causes of the child's mental development, the concept of A. Wallon developed in the direction of overcoming the biogenetic approach to the study of the child's psyche.